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Known as the “King of the Jungle,” the lion (Note 1) actually lives on the open African grasslands. Originally, he ranged from the Mediterranean Sea to Asia (Note 2) and south to Africa. Hunted by Romans for their Games, the lion first disappeared from Europe and Asia Minor. As lion hunting increased, his range shrank to where now the lion lives only in Africa.

Unlike most members of the Cat Family, the lion is social. He lives in a pride and forms coalitions with his male friends. In his pride, the lionesses work together to hunt and chase off predators. Meanwhile with his male partners, the lion defends their territory against intruders. With his coalition, the lion rules the pride for a few years until a new coalition arises. Then he and his male partners leave.

When lions hunt, they form a cooperative group. Whether they are killing seals on a beach or cape buffalos on the savannah, the pride forms a plan of action. Some lionesses wait downwind while their sisters herd the animals towards them. Other lionesses travel around the prey to close off avenues of escape. Suddenly, a lioness shows herself, causing panic among the prey. The animals rush headlong into the pride’s ambush.

Because the lion is yellow, and loves sleeping in the sun, he has been the symbol of the Sun for many cultures. People so admired the lion, that they thought he possessed spiritual powers equal to his physical attitudes. As “King of the Beasts,” Lion was wise and just.

Killing a lion was a symbol of manhood. In Africa, young men were initiated through lion combat. The Zulu and Masai were expected to defeat a lion to become a man among their peoples. In Ethiopia, the Emperor awarded the bravest warriors with a lion mane headdress.

Legends of White Lions (Children of the Sun God) exist in various oral traditions, in the Timbavati Region of Africa, from the time of Queen Numbi, who ruled about four hundred years ago. Tradition holds that once every century a White Lion appears. (Note 3) A gift from God, White Lions represent the good in all creatures. In Botswana and Kenya, they are symbols of leadership and pride.

In Ancient Egypt, the lion was the symbol of the pharaoh. This Big Cat represented his divinity and right of rule. To symbolize his power and authority, the pharaoh wore the Lion Headdress (the Nemes crown (Note 4)). Meanwhile, the Lion God, Maahes, guarded the Pharaoh as he went about his affairs.

In China, the lion is a mythic creature, a symbol of nobility and dignity. Guardian Lions (Foo Dogs) protect buildings from harmful spirits. The left Lion is a female with her Cub, representing Yin. Meanwhile, the right Lion is a male with a ball, representing Yang. These Lions of Order are balancing equal and opposing forces, while the Cub is Chaos. These statues, always in pairs, are at entrances or the north or northwest parts of the buildings.

Lion Dancing, which has a very long tradition, is an essential part of Chinese festivals. The Lion Dance brings good luck, prosperity, and happiness to the people at the festival. The two styles of the Chinese Lion Dance are the Southern which originated in Guangdong and the Northern, which was the original. Meanwhile, various peoples in Asia have their version of the Lion Dance. In Japan, the dance is performed during New Years for good luck and to drive away evil. In Korea, the Lion Dance is used for exorcism. In Tibet, they conduct the Snow Lion Dance, their Emblem of power and strength.

Meanwhile, Christianity had complex relations with the lion. While Mark, the Evangelist is represented by the lion, Christ treads on the lion as the enemy of God. However, the Lion represents Christ as coming from the tribe of Judah. (Note 5)

While humans celebrate the male lion as “King,” the lions themselves live in coalitions. They teach constructive group dynamics. When hunting, everyone contributes to bringing down the prey. Working together patiently makes for a successful hunt. Even though lions have strong personalities, they cooperate successfully. Learn from the lion how to accomplish much in your group.

Notes:

Note 1. Cats are traditionally divided into two groups – Big and Small Cats. Big Cats (Pantherinae) differ from Small Cats (Felinae) in several ways. They roar instead of purr, with their roars being very loud and resonant. Unlike Small Cats, Big Cats attack animals larger than themselves. They suffocate the prey with a strangle hold on the neck or by covering the prey’s snout with their jaws. Messy eaters, Big Cats do not groom themselves as meticulously as Small Cats.

The Cat Subfamilies: Felinae includes the puma, ocelot, jaguarundi, and margay cat. Pantherinae includes the bobcat, jaguar, lion, leopard (panther), lynx, and the tiger.

Note 2. The Asian Lion (Panthera leo leo) ranged from Turkey to India.

Note 3. In the 1970s, White Lions were found again in the Timbavati Region in South Africa, and are now protected.

Note 4. The Nemes is the striped head cloth with two large flaps hanging behind the ears and in the front of the shoulders.

Note 5. Lion Christian Symbols:

Lion: Christ

With Cross-Shaped Nimbus: Lion of the Tribe of Judah

Carrying a Book: Christ as the Teacher

Sleeping: Christ, the Divine Watcher

Winged: St. Mark, the Evangelist

Akitu, the New Year’s Festival is one of the most complex and important ceremonies of Babylonians. Starting at the Spring Equinox (Nisan, the first month of the year), this festival continues for twelve days. It involves purification, the re-establishment of creation, and the re-affirmation of life, death, and the family. The rituals re-enforce the bonds of the community between the people, their Gods, and leaders. (In Ancient Babylon, elaborate and lengthy rituals for the Akitu were conducted. Modern followers of the Babylonian Gods usually have much simpler and fewer ceremonies.)

The New Year’s Festival encompasses nearly all of the tenets of Babylonian religion. First, everyone prepare for the coming year by purifying themselves and their temples. Then, the Babylonian Story of Creation (Enuma Elish) is read, beginning with the formation of the world by Apsu, the Deep and Tiamat, the Primordial Mother, to the recreation of it by Marduk. During this part of the Festival, the statues of the Babylonian Gods are brought from their temples to Marduk’s shrine.

In Ancient Babylon, the King left Babylon to travel to Borsippa (“Second Babylon”) to the temple of Nabu, Marduk’s Son and First Minister. After the King returned with that shrine’s statue, he humbled himself in the temple of Marduk. In an elaborate ritual, the King confessed what he has not done to harm his people. Finally, the King received a divination from Nabu for the coming year, which was recorded by the scribes.

Meanwhile, Marduk (the God) goes missing. While the people go into mourning believing that He is dead, Marduk’s son, Nabu leads the other Gods into the Underworld to rescue His Father. Demonstrating his love, Nabu brings Marduk home to be installed as the Head of the Gods.

The Akitu of Ancient Babylon featured the Sacred Marriage with the King acting as the God occurs with the priestess as the Goddess. The couple could represent Marduk and his wife Sarpanitu, Goddess of Childbirth or Nabu with his wife, Nanaya, Goddess of Fertility. The Marriage was to ensure the fertility of the land and to raise the king as a representative of the Gods.

After the final procession of the statues of the Gods returning to their respective temples, the priests dispense the decisions made by the Gods for the coming year. During a lengthy ritual, everyone hears their destinies and reaffirm their love for the Gods. Following feasting, the people return to their ordinary lives. Harmony between humans, nature, and the Gods has been restored.

From “Enuma Elish” (“The Seven Tablets of Creation”)

Translated by Stephanie Dalley, “Myths from Mesopotamia”

Edited by me.

According to Dalley, it is hard to give an accurate description of the many titles of Marduk. Some are names of other Gods Who He assimilated. (Note 1) The others are epithets describing aspects of His various powers. Since the Sumerian is hard to convey in English, the rest of the names may seem repetitive.

In the “Enuma Elish,” there are more than fifty names listed. Since in English it is hard to differentiate between an actual name and a synonym, I have included all them for this listing. Doing this has been an act of devotion to Marduk, since it requires contemplation.

From the “Sixth Tablet”

“Thus They granted that He should exercise the Kingship of the Gods

And confirmed for Him, mastery of the Gods of Heaven and Earth.”

Marduk, “Let the Son, Majesty of the Gods be his Name.”

Asarluhi, “Let Him act as Shepherd over the black-headed people, his creation”

Marukka, “He is the God who created them”

Marutukku, “He is the Help of country, city and his people”

Mershakushu, “Furious yet Merciful”

Lugal-dimmer-ankia, “His command higher than the Gods, His Fathers”

Bel, “The King at whose instruction, the Gods are awed above and below”

Nari-Lugal-dimmer-ankia, “Director of All the Gods”

Asarlushi, “Light of the Gods, Strong Leader, who like his name is the protecting spirit of God and country”

Namtila, “The God who gives life”

Namra, “The pure God who purified our path”

“The Seventh Tablet”

Asare, “Bestower of Ploughland”

Asa-ralim, “Whose Weighted Counsel is most revered in the Chamber of Council”

Asar-alim-nuna, “The Mighty One, Whose farmland makes a surplus for the country”

Tutu, “None among the Gods shall rival him, since He is the Creator of their renewal”

Zi-ukkina, “The Inspiration of his people, who fixed the pure skies for the Gods”

Ziku, “The Upholder of Purification, The Producer of riches and abundance”

Agaku, “The Lord of the Pure Incantation, the Quickener of the Dead”

“The Merciful One, who has the power to give life!”

Tuku, “Who uprooted all of the wicked with his pure incantation.”

Shazu, “Director of Justice, Who plucks out crooked speech.”

Suhrim, “Uprooter of all the foe by force of arms”

Zisi, “Silencer of the aggressor”

Suhgurim, “Uprooter of the foe, Destroyer of their offspring”

Zahrim, “Destroyer of all enemies, everyone of them arrogant”

Zahgurim, “Who destroyed all the foe by Himself in battle”

Enbilulu, “Who opens up wells and apportions the waters of abundance”

Epadun, “Canal Controller of heaven and earth”

Gugal, “Giver of cereals, Producer of grain”

Hegal, “Who brings rains of abundance over the broad earth”

Sirsir, “Governor of the land, Their Righteous Shepherd

Malah, “The Boatman who uses Tiamat’s body as his barque.”

Gil, “Producer of cereals and flocks, Giver of the land’s seed”

Gilima, “Who established the cosmic bond of the Gods, Who created stability”

Agilima, “Who built the earth above the water, established the heights”

Zulum, “Bestower of incomes and food offerings, Supplier of shrines”

Mummu, “Fashioner of heaven and earth”

Zulum-ummu, “Whom no other God equals for strength”

Gish-numu-ab, “Creator of all people, Maker of the World’s quarters”

Lugal-ab-dubur, “The King who scattered Tiamat’s brood and snatched her weapon”

Pagal-guena, “Leader of all the Lords, whose might is supreme”

Lugal-durmah, “Bond of Gods, Lord of the Cosmic Bond”

Aranuna, “The Counsellor of Ea,(Note 2) Whom no God equals in his princely way”

Dumu-duku, “Whose pure dwelling is marked out for Him on the holy mound”

Lugal-duku, “Without whom rules cannot be decided”

Lugal-shuanna, “King whose might is supreme among the Gods”

Iruga, “Who unites all wisdom, and is broad of understanding”

Irqingu, “Who administers decrees for everything”

Kinma, “Director of all the Gods, Giver of Counsel”

E-sizkur, “He shall sit highest in the house of prayer”

Gibil, “Who performed miracles in the battle with Tiamat”

Addu, “May He shed water from the clouds, and give sustenance to the people below”

Asharu, “Who likes his name is responsible for the Gods of destinies”

Neberu, “Because He created the Place (heaven) and fashioned Dannina (earth)”

Enkurkur, “He whose name his fathers have made glorious,

Shall be even as I, his name shall be Ea!(Note 2)

The binding of all my decrees shall he control,

All my commands shall he make known!”

The ending of “Enuma Elish:”

“With fifty epithets, the Great Gods

Called his fifty names, Making his ways supreme”

“In remembrance of the song of Marduk

Who defeated Tiamat and took the Kingship.”

Notes:

Note 1. Asare, Tutu, Enbilulu, and Addu. Addu is the Weather God Adad, the only non-Sumerian God in the list.

Note 2. Ea is another name for Enlil.

The Patron God of Babylon, Marduk rose to become the Ruler of the Gods of Mesopotamia. He is the third God to head this pantheon. Apsu, the Deep and Tiamat, the Primordial Mother, who together created the world, ruled at the beginning according to the Enuma Elish (The Story of Creation). Then One of the Younger Gods, Enlil who Holds of the Tablets of Destiny, overthrew the Divine Couple by using magic. When Tiamat wanted vengeance for the murder of Her Mate, the Great Gods (Note 1) met and conferred on Marduk their powers to destroy Her. After their battle, He recreated the Cosmos with the body of the slain Tiamat.

Marduk is the God who shaped the Cosmos. Making the Heavens and the Earth from the body of Tiamat, He demonstrates the transformative power of creating order from chaos. By restoring order to the Cosmos, Marduk allows it to flourish. Besides kings ruling justly in his name, judges call upon the blessings of Marduk in legal proceedings.

Originally a God of Agriculture, Marduk became the Mediator between the Gods and Hammurabi, the king (1792-1750 BCE). Later kings of Babylonia received the commands of the Gods through Him. By the time of Nebuchadnezzar I (1121-1100 BCE) (Note 2), Marduk was the Supreme King of the Gods, Lord of the Lands (which was formally Enlil’s title). For the kings of Neo-Babylonian times, He was the source of their authority.

For Babylonians, their empire brought peace, ending the many wars between the cities. Misery abounded and cities burned until Babylon rules the region. Babylon, as Marduk, established order and justice in the land.

Selected Notes About Marduk

Marduk’s Consort is Sarpantu, whose attributes are unknown. She is the Queen of the Gods because of Markuk. However, Sarpantu can be called upon to assist with pregnancy and childbirth.

Marduk’s symbols are the hoe, the thunderbolt, and the bow with arrows. The hoe is for fertility and agriculture since this God brings the rains. Often depicted riding his battle chariot, Marduk wields a thunderbolt. This connotates the destruction and renewal that comes afterwards. His bow and arrows are for the war He wages against chaos. (Meanwhile, the Mushhushshu, a type of dragon who is associated with Him, represents the chaos.)

Esaglia, the temple tower of Marduk, was recreated as the “Tower of Babel” in the Old Testament. Mentioned in the “Enuma Elish,” Esaglia was built by the Gods, making it the highest tower in the region. The shooting of the arrow from “Babel” is from the Sixth Tablet of “Enuma Elish.” (Note 3)

Some of Marduk’s epithets:

God of Fifty Names and Powers

King of Heaven

Guardian of the Four Quarters

Overseer Who is Good

Shepherd of the Gods

Light of His Father

Young Steer of the Day

Bull-Calf of the Storm

Glorious Word of Power

Citadel of Prayer

Shepherd of the Stars

Lord of Life

Master of Magic

Restorer of Joy to Humankind

Patron of Babylon

Notes:

Note 1. The Great Gods did not include Marduk until the time of the Assyrian Kings, who “raised” Him and Assur, their Patron God.

Note 2. Not to be confused with Nebuchadnezzar II of the Old Testament. Nebuchadnezzar I was a devotee of Marduk.

Note 3. Scholars have thought that Etemenanki, which is the temple complex that contains Esaglia, was the “Tower of Babel” of the Old Testament. (Meanwhile, Marduk is called “Merodach” in the Old Testament.)

(From the “Cultic Calendars of the Ancient Near East” by Mark E. Cohen)

The following is a translation of ritual instructions, dating to 251 B.C., on escorting Anu from the ReS-temple in Uruk to the akitu-house outside the walled city on the first day of the festival. After Anu has gone out from the Enamenna, and arrives at the High-Gate, all the exorcists chant the (Babylonian) spell “The King Has Gone Out” three times.

The exorcists stop, and then the High Priest, the exorcists, the temple personnel and the brewers who are tied to the carrying- poles shall greet Anu, (saying) “Great Anu, heaven and earth greet you!”

After the prayers, the exorcists chant the (Babylonian) spell “The King Has Gone Out” four times along the Street of the Gods.

The High Priest, the exorcists, the temple personnel and the brewers who are tied to the carrying- poles shall greet Anu, (saying) “Great Anu, heaven and earth greet you!”

After the prayers along the Street of the Gods, the exorcists chant the (Sumerian) spell “The King, Who in Heaven and Earth Surpasses All Other Kings” four times.

They stop, and the High Priest, the exorcists, the temple personnel and those tied to the carrying-poles shall recite the same (prayer) to Anu as before.

After the prayers, the exorcists chant the (Sumerian) spells “The King is Coming to the Festival” and “From the Holy Water Basin” seven times until (they arrive at) the Holy-Quay, the wharf of the Boat of Anu, (along) the Street of the Gods.

They stop, and the High Priest, the exorcists, the temple personnel and those tied to the carrying-poles greet Anu. Upon Anu’s arrival at the wharf of the Boat of Anu, the exorcists and the temple personnel chant the (Sumerian) spell “He has Sailed the Cargo Ship.”

Afterwards the High Priest, the exorcists, the temple personnel and those tied to the carrying-poles shall recite the same prayer to Anu as before.

From the upper wharf of the Holy-Quay to the King’s-Gate the exorcists will recite the spell “He who surpasses all kings, after He has passed by in the holy street” seven times.

They stop, and at the King’s-Gate, the High Priest, the exorcists, the temple personnel and those tied to the carrying-poles greet Anu. From the King’s-Gate to the akitu-house (the house of prayer), the exorcists chant the same spells as at the Street of the Gods.

They stop (chanting) the spells, and the High Priest, the exorcists, the temple personnel and the brewers tied to the carrying-poles recite the greeting seven times and greet Anu.

When Anu arrives at the Akitu-house, the exorcists recite the (Sumerian) spells:

“Holy House, House of the Gods.”

“Anu, My King, Your Good Heart.”

“(In) the Banquet Hall, At the Evening Meal of Anu.”

“He Befitting the Lofty Dais.”

and the (Babylonian) spells: “The House Has Been Purified” and “The Dwelling of the Great Gods.”

They recite:

“Great Anu, may heaven and earth greet you! May Enlil, Ea and Belet-ili joyously greet you! May the pair of Gods Sin (the moon) and Samas (the sun) greet you with their countenance. May Nergal and the Seven Gods greet you with kindness in their hearts. May the Igigi of heaven and the Anunnaki of earth greet you! May the Gods of the subterranean waters and the Gods of the sacred mound greet you! May They greet you daily, each day, month and year.”

The procession and prayers establishes Anu’s domain. He consults with the other Gods, and then decides the fates of the humans for the coming year. The people reaffirm their devotions to Him and the other Gods.

Notes:

Exorcists: The Asipu who are both diviners and doctors.

Seven Gods: A group of beneficent Gods who protect against demons.

Ea: Akkadian for Enki

Belet-ili: Akkadian for Ninlil

Seven and Four: Magical numbers

Igigi: The Great Gods of Heaven

Anunnaki: The Gods of Earth and Underworld

Further reading:

Jeremy Black and Anthony Green, “Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia”

The Wheel of the Year in Mesopotamia starts at the Vernal Equinox. This is celebrated as zagmu, “the turning of the year.” (Note 1) At this time, the major festival of Akitu focuses on the Gods returning to their cities for the new year. Then, the Gods are re-installed as the leaders of each city. The spring harvest of barley is blessed. At the end of Akitu festival, the Gods determine the destiny of the people for the coming year.

The Akitu (New Year’s) Festival is one of the most complex and important ceremonies in Mesopotamia. Starting at the Spring Equinox, this festival continues for twelve days. It involves purification, the re-establishment of creation, and the re-affirmation of life, death, and the family. The rituals re-enforce the bonds of the community between the people, their Gods, and leaders. (In Ancient Mesopotamia, elaborate and lengthy rituals for the Akitu were conducted. Modern followers of the Mesopotamian Gods have a much simpler ceremony.)

During the Akitu, the God’s statue is taken on the Boat of Heaven to the Akitu house outside the city walls. (This is the house where the God resides when They are on the earth.) During the first three days, offerings are made at the Boat of Heaven and at the Akitu house – during daybreak, evening, and midnight. Afterwards, the statue of the God is taken through the city and welcomed.

Originally, the Akitu focused on Nanna-Suen, the Moon God. He is the God of Time, measuring the months by the waxing and waning of the moon. Later each city held the Akitu festival for their principal Gods. The Nippur Compendium lists the Gods for the Akitu (Note 2). According to Mark Cohen, Akitu festivals were celebrated at Uruk for Anu, Beltu-sa-Uruk, and Usur-amassa; at Babylon for Marduk and Nabu, at Nippur for Marduk, Ninurta, and Nanna-Sin.

The Ishtar Gate lists a ritual for modern Sumerian Polytheists to follow. The following is a summary:

Day before Akitu: Reflect on the past year.

Day 1. Remove the statues from your altar to a ceremonial Akitu-House.

Day 2. Make offerings at the Akitu-House. Reflect on the Gods in your life.

Day 3. Read the “Enuma Elish”

Day 4. Day of Atonement. Reflect on how to do better in the coming year.

Day 5. Clean your home, take a bath, and clean the altar.

Day 6. Praise the Gods. Read “Enki and the World Order.”

Day 7. Take statues back to the altar and make offerings.

Notes:

Note 1. “Zagmu” translates to “the New Year” or “Spring.” It is believed that the term denoted the spring fruit, or the yield of the first month.

Note 2. Nippur Compendium:

Marduk ,for His Supreme Divinity

Ninurta, for His Father Enlil

Ishtar (Inanna), the Queen of Nippur

Nanna-Sin

Sources:

Jeremy Black and Anthony Green, “Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia”

Mark Cohen, “Festivals and Calendars of the Ancient Near East.”

The Ishtar Gate, https://theishtargate.com/

The beginning of the Sumerian year starts at the Spring Equinox. (Note 1) This turning of the year is called zagmu, “the border of the year.” (Note 2) This is the time to take stock, review personal affairs, and financial accounts. Moreover, affirm the Gods as the supreme authorities of the cosmos.

For Sumerians, the month is called Barazagar, (Note 3) which is thought to be mean “throne of the sanctuary.” During this month, the statues of the Gods are placed by either side of the Throne of Enlil, This is the time that Enlil holds court. First Offerings are made to the Gods. Later in the month, there were offerings made to the temples of Enlil and His Consort, Ninlil.

The Akiti-Sekingu, “the Festival of Barley Consumption,” starts at the full moon, after the harvest. At this festival, presents of bread and beer (burumai) are given. Offerings are made to Nisaba ((Tashmetum) Goddess of Grain), Nanshe (Goddess of Divination) or Ningirsu (God of the Floods) (depending on the city). On the first day of the festival, the God, their Family, and Associates receive offerings. On the second day, the God receive the most offerings. On the final day, only the God receives any offerings. (These offerings are barley, dates and dark beer.)

From a “Hymn to Nisaba:”

In order to make grain and vegetable grown in the furrow,

So that the excellent corn can be marvelled at,

That is, to provide for the seven great throne-daises

By making vegetables shoot forth, making grain shoot forth,

At harvest, the great festival of Enlil,

She in her great princely role has verily cleansed (her) body,

Has verily put the holy priestly garment on (her) torso.

(N.B. This alludes to the beauty of the grain being harvested.)

The Akitu Festival in Ur, Sumer honors the coming of Nanna, the God of the Moon. The entry of Nanna is celebrated, with his statue brought in by barge from the akitu house (a building outside of the city). (The akitu house is where the God temporarily lives while He is on the earth.) Depending on the Sumerian city, Nanna, Ninurta (God of Farming and War), Enlil (Holder of the Tablet of Destinies) or Inanna (Goddess of Love and War) are celebrated. (Note 4) Modern Sumerian Polytheists usually choose between the four Gods to honor.

Notes:

Note 1. The Sumerians had a lunar calendar, and added months beyond the 12-month year. They kept their year keyed to the equinoxes. Modern Sumerian Polytheists follow the reconstructed calendar of the holy city of Nippur.

Note 2. “Zagmu” translates to “the New Year” or “Spring.” It is believed that the term denoted the spring fruit, or the yield of the first month.

Note 3. This month’s logogram was utilized for the Standard Mesopotamian Calendar month, Nisaanu.

Note 4. The Nippur Compendium lists the Gods for the Atiku.

Marduk, for His Supreme Divinity

Ninurata, for His Father Enlil

Ishtar (Inanna), the Queen of Nippur

Nanna-Sin

The beginning of the Babylonian year starts at the Spring Equinox. (Note 1) This turning of the year is called zagmu, “the border of the year.” (Note 2) At this time, people take stock, review their personal affairs, and check their financial accounts. Then they affirm the Gods as the supreme authorities of the cosmos.

According to Assyrian Astrolabe B, Nisannu, the first month of the year is for Nanna (Sin), the God of the Moon. “The month Nisannu, the dais of Anua King is removed and a King is installed; a good start for Anu and Enlil; the month of Nanna-Suen, the first-born of Enlil.” An incantation from Nimrud reiterates this: “May the month Nisannu, (the month) of Anu and Enlil, absolve! The first month belonged to the First of the Gods.”

During Nisannu (the new moon after the equinox) the Akitu, the New Year Festival is held for twelve days. It starts with purifications, and then the “Enuma Elish” (the Babylonian Creation Epic) is read. This myth begins with the original creation of the world by Tiamat, the Goddess of Chaos, and Apsu, the God of Waters. Later Anu, a God from the succeeding generation becomes the “Father of the Gods.” Eventually, He cedes his powers to Enlil, from yet a newer generation of Gods, who seeks to overthrow the original Gods. After Enlil kills Apsu, Tiamat wages war on the newer Gods. In desperation, Enlil goes to Marduk, the principal deity of Babylon, for help. On the condition that He is made the Ruler of the Gods, Marduk agrees. After killing Tiamat, Marduk remakes the world from her body.

During the Akitu, Marduk disappears. While his and Nabu’s temples are being cleansed, the people search for Him. At this time, they carry the statues of the other Gods to Marduk’s temple. Meanwhile, Nabu, the Scribe of the Gods and Marduk’s Minister, searches for and then frees Marduk from the Underworld. Then in his temple, the priests re-enthroned Marduk as the Ruler of the Gods. (Note 3) Afterwards, they do divination for the coming year. The festival ends with celebrations and the return of the Gods to their shrines. (Note 4)

Meanwhile to begin the growing season, the King would enact a sacred marriage with the temple priestess of Ishtar (Inanna). Their mating is to reaffirm the marriage of Ishtar, the Goddess of Fertility, with her husband, Tammuz (Dumuzi). These marriage rites ensure that the King is accepted as one of the Gods, and blessed by Ishtar, who also blesses the crops.

Notes:

Note 1. The Babylonians had a lunar calendar and added months beyond the 12-month year. They kept their year keyed to the equinoxes. Between 1750 – 1500 BCE, they standardized their calendar – the Standard Mesopotamian Calendar to unify their empire.

Note 2. “Zagmu” translates to “the New Year” or “Spring.” It is believed that the term denoted the spring fruit, or the yield of the first month.

Note 3. This called the “Installation of the King,” which could either mean Marduk, Himself or a human king.

Note 4. The Stages of the Pageantry for Marduk are

At His Temple

Between curtains

At His Sacred Dwelling

On the Throne of Destinies

Procession through the streets

Journey by barge

Residing at the Akitu House

After His Temple is cleansed, the stages are reversed.

The month of March is named for Mars, the Roman God of War. Besides war, Mars also protected the land and crops. Spring brought both preparations for planting and for war. The Feriae Marti (the Festival of Mars), lasts for nearly the entire month and is similar to the Carnival Season and Mardi Gras.

Traditionally, the New Year for Romans began in March, the first month of the original calendar. After the reforms of Numa Pompilis and Julius Caesar, it was still celebrated as a second New Year’s Day. The spring equinox was still the beginning of the planting and war seasons.

Juno Lucina

On March 1, the Matronalia is held in honor of mothers. Husbands and daughters give presents to mothers. Juno Lucina, the aspect of Juno who governs over women and childbirth, receives prayers for safe childbirth and fertility.

Anna Perenna

On March 15th (Ides), Traditional New Year is celebrated. Anna Perenna, the Goddess of the Returning Year, oversees the celebrations. People would picnic and drink cups of wine in her honor, and offer prayers for a prosperous year. They, also, picnicked along the Tiber, camping out singing and dancing.

Attis, Consort of the Magna Mater

From March 15 to 27, the Hilaria is held for Attis, the Shephard. This God is the Son and Lover of Cybele, the Magna Mater. This unusual festival is the “Passion of Attis.” It commemorates his birth, death, and rebirth. On the last day, the sacred stone of the Magna Mater is washed in ashes.

Liber Pater and Libera

On March 17, the Liberalia is held. Wearing ivy wreaths, several old women offer cakes made from oil and honey (libia) to Liber Pater, the God of Fertility and Wine. Then a large phallus is taken around to encourage the plants to grow and for a good harvest. Liber Pater and Libera are the Gods of the Male and Female Seeds, respectively.

Minerva

From March 19 to 24, the Quinquatrus is held to honor Minerva, the Goddess of the Arts and War. Since the first day is sacred to Her, as Her Birthday, no blood is shed on that day. The Quinquatrus is celebrated by artisans and students. Traditional Roman festivities included martial arts contests.

Mars

Starting the 1st of the March and on the 9th, and 24th, the Salii (Leaping Priests of Mars) danced through the streets of Rome singing hymns, and later held feasts in honor of Mars. They danced to commemorate the day the Shield of Mars fell to the earth. (Therefore, the Salii wore classic Bronze Age armor and sang ancient hymns.) Meanwhile, horse races were held, sacrifices made, and trumpets purified. Mamurius Venturius, the Old Man of March, was driven out of Rome taking disease and sickness with Him.

Divus Julius (Caesar)

After being assassinated on the Ides of March, Julius Caesar became divine. Now as Divus Julius, He has a hero cultus. I honor Him during this month and in July (named for Him).

My learning style is self-directed. I learn best by reading and writing. (Note 1) What this means is that I prefer making lists, writing notes and reading books to learn. While I do those activities, I structure how to go onto next thing. In my learning, I make a concerted effort to learn a particular subject, with its tributaries.

My personality type is commonly known as the “Commander.” (Note 2) That means I am direct and assertive. Because of my bluntness, early in my life, I had to learn to be polite. I like to have outer order and control, so I can feel calm and secure inside. (I can be a formidable strategist.) Because of my restless mind, I tend to be hypervigilant in trying to stave off chaos. Furthermore, in my life, I like to impose order, rationality, and efficiency.

I have been pondering what sort of project would fit my learning style and personality. I would like help in working that out. Although I have a plethora of ideas, to match them to my abilities and the intent of the practicum has been daunting for me.

Since it is more complex than a regular course, the practicum seems overwhelming to me. I need a coach to help me structure the practicum, so I can have direction. One example would be me asking if I am on the right track. Or the coach seeing that I am veering off into the weeds, gently tells me to change directions. Also, I would like to get feedback on my ideas.

I would like coaching that ensures that I am on-track with the purpose of the practicum. I have a tendency to go off on tangents or to seek out a complete understanding every area of a topic. I probably will need help in winnowing down my ideas, and then creating a sense of order out of chaos.

I usually work independently. Because of my personality type, I work better alone than with a group of people. My mind has always made odd connections between things. This serves me well in performing divinations but can become too tangential and erratic for the focus of the group.

Notes:

Note 1. The four learning styles are visual, audio, read/write, and kinesthetic (VARK) as developed by educator Neil Fleming in 1987.

Note 2. As defined by the Myers-Briggs Personality Test

I have been a student since 2007 and now working my Practicum (final project).

What were your favorite classes in your major? Why?

“Crystal Divination” and “Tree Ogham and Divination.” I enjoy learning how to divine with nature and its signs.

What were your least favorite classes? Why? My least favorite were “Correspondences” and “Planetary Correspondences.” They were too abstract and esoteric for me. They dealt with magical theory, which does not interest me.

What classes were the most valuable classes in your major? Why? The most valuable were the Tarot and Astrology classes since both form the basis of modern divination. I believe they were necessary to learn. However, they are subjects, that I am not very enthusiastic about.

What new skills did you learn while completing your Major? The new skills, I learned was about exploring Astrology and how to apply its principles to other divination.

What discoveries did you make about yourself and your talents? I am a generalist and prefer to learn a multiple forms of divination. I make odd connections beyond the conventional meanings which serves me well.

Which classes inspired you to try something next—and if so, how did that work out? The Tarot classes had me to try to learn about Astrology and how the two relate to each other.

Even though your major is technically complete, what classes do you feel that you still need to take? How will they help you, academically? I would have like to have taken “Designing Spreads.” I want to understand how a spread works and how it flows from question to question.

Have you chosen a minor, and if so, how does it relate to your major, or to your growth as an apprentice Wizard? I chose Lore, which gave me a solid background on how divination developed. The minor presented me with different ideas of how people approach magic.

Did any experiences play a role in your wizardly growth, particularly in the field of Divination? I did not participate in any extra-curricular activities because of my traumatic brain injury. However, I started in 2007 attending the Grey School of Wizardry. As a faithful student, I adapted to dramatic changes in the school. I learned how to be fluid in my learning and expectations. The requirements for the Divination major changed over this period, and I changed with it.

The Internet

Samuel David, a Mesopotamian Polytheist.

He has many resources and discussions of theology at his site “Rod & Ring: Ancient Near East Meets Modern West.”

https://rodandring.wordpress.com/

The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature.

This searchable database contains cuneiform tablets as they are deciphered by noted language experts.

http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk

The Ishtar Gate

A Modern Sumerian Polytheist site for those who follow the Gods of Mesopotamia.

https://theishtargate.com/

The Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus (ORACC)

This collaborative effort by universities is to develop a complete set of a digital collection of cuneiform for research. A searchable wiki is attached to the database. http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu

Academic

Black, Jeremy & Green, Anthony, “An Illustrated Dictionary: Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia.” University of Texas Press: Austin (TX). 1992.

Written by two archeologists, this is a handy resource for the religions of Mesopotamia.

Cohen, Mark, “Festivals and Calendars of the Ancient Near East.” CDL Press: Bethesda (MD). 2015.

Cohen presents and explains the texts for Babylonian and Sumerian calendars including the Nippur and Standard Mesopotamia Calendar. He describes the Akitu Festival in detail. The book, intended for academics, is rather dry.

“Calendars and Festivals in Mesopotamia in the Third and Second Millennia BC,” edited by Daisuke Shibata and Shigeo Yamada. Studia Chaburensi: Vol. 9. Harrassowitz Verlag: Weisbaden (GER). 2021.

Papers from a conference held at the University of Tsukuba on 23-24 March 2015 of an international group of experts on the third and second millennia BC of Mesopotamia. As a companion to Mark Cohen’s book, this gives more background of calendars in use. It also highlights differences in opinions with Cohen about festivals.

Dalley, Stephanie, “Myths From Mesopotamia: Creation, The Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others.” New York, NY: Oxford University Press: New York. 2008.

Dalley presents the important myths as they are translated from cuneiform, and offers insights for each.

Jacobsen, Thorkild, “The Treasures of Darkness.” Yale University, New Haven. 1976.

Jacobsen traces the religion of ancient Mesopotamia from the Fourth Millennium to the Second Millennium. He is the originator of the concept: “The Seven Who Decree Fate.” He presents the religious thinking though out this time from Gods as Providers to Gods as Parents. He also analyzes the Enuma Elish and the Gilgamesh epics.

Kramer, Samuel Noah, “The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character.” University of Chicago Press: Chicago. 1971.

Kramer was one of the world’s leading Assyriologists and experts in Sumerian history and language. He describes the religion, literature, social structure and psychology of the Sumerians.

Kramer, Samuel Noah, “Sumerian Mythology.” E-book. Grapevine India. 2022.

Kramer examines the cultural and historical context of the myths.

Schneider, Tammi, “An Introduction to Ancient Mesopotamian Religion.” William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.: Grand Rapids (MI). 2011.

This is a good introductory text to Mesopotamian religion. It delineates time (the calendar) and space (temples) as well as Gods, rituals, and myths.

Pagan

David, Samuel. “Rod & Ring: An Initiation into A Mesopotamian Mystery Tradition.” Anathema Publishing Ltd: Gatineau, Quebec. 2021.

David wrote rituals for modern Pagans surrounding Inanna’s Descent and Return.

Irvine, Scott, “Pagan Portals – Ishtar and Ereshkigal.” Moon Books: U.K. 2020.

Ishtar and Ereshkigal are discussed in the context of modern Paganism. Background of these Goddesses is offered and interpreted in a mythic cycle of life, death, and rebirth.

Krasskova, Galina, ed. “Into the Great Below: A Devotional to Inanna and Ereshkigal.” Asphodel Press: Hubbardston, MA, 2010.

The book contains rituals surrounding Inanna’s Descent and Return, and prayers to Inanna and Ereshkigal. It is written by modern Polytheists.

Meredith, Jane, “Journey to the Dark Goddess.” Moon Books: U.K. 2012.

Meredith compares three Goddesses – Inanna, Persephone, and Psyche, their descent, transformation and ascent. She writes from a modern Pagan point of view.

Other

Baigent, Michael, “Astrology in Ancient Mesopotamia.” Bear & Company: Rochester (VT). 1994

Baigent divided his book into three sections. The first describes how the archeology was conducted and how it relates to the religion. The middle concerns the Gods and the Planets. The last is what happened to Mesopotamian during its decline and into modern times.

Dickie, Lloyd and Paul Boudreau, “Awakening to Higher Consciousness.” Inner Traditions: Rochester (VT). 2015.

The authors compare and contrast the creation myths of Sumer and Egypt. They present the netherworlds of both and their mythic lineages. The Gilgamesh Epic is discussed as it relates to the awakening to consciousness.

Shushan, Gregory, “Near-Death Experiences in Ancient Civilization.” Inner Traditions: Rochester (VT). 2025.

Shushan presents a lengthy chapter on the Mesopotamian Afterlife. Within the book, he discusses the cultural context of Near-Death Experiences.

Throughout the ages, the Dead and the living have interacted with each other. Numerous stories have been told of how the Dead warn the living or inform the unknowing living of their own demise. Meanwhile, ancient cultures had robust relations with the Dead as Ancestors or Spirits such as the Roman Lares. In fact, each culture had a time of year when the Dead lived among the living. (Note 1)

Since Christian thought permeates modern Western thinking, people have separated themselves from spirits in general, and the Dead in particular. In Christianity, the Dead either go to heaven (reward) or hell (punishment). Meanwhile, modern science has diminished the Dead to mere figments of people’s imaginations. In the West, the culture of disbelief has everything paranormal based on the abnormalities of the brain (such as temporal lobe epilepsy (Note 2)). Meanwhile, deeply religious people who have visions of the Dead are often patronized.

Terence McKenna, noted ethnobotanist and mystic, said in 1999, “It’s much easier to believe in meddling extraterrestrials than that Uncle Herman and Aunt Fanny are somehow reaching in from the Great Beyond. The human soul is so alienated from us in our present culture that we treat it as an extraterrestrial. To us, the most alien thing in the cosmos is the human soul.” (Note 3)

Later, in a 2020 interview with Mike Clelland (Note 4), Christopher Knowles, pop author and blogger of “The Secret Sun,” said “The paranormal, to me, is essentially, phenomena that wells up around death, and either anticipates death, or is some sort of running commentary during or after death. When real paranormal things happen, it’s almost always connected to death.”

In “The Ecology of Souls,” Joshua Cutchin regards people’s beliefs in UFOs and other paranormal activity as an aversion to thinking in terms of the Dead. He notes that it is easier to understand in another kind of reality such as faeries or Bigfoot than to connect with the Dead. In his examination of the paranormal, Cutchin sees it as a great mystery related to the “Greatest Mystery of All: Dying.”

One aspect of afterlife belief, “Co-Creation Theory,” (Note 5) says that in a non-dual world, the living and Dead have visions of each other. Carl Jung said that the realm of the psychic and physical meet in “Never -Never Land.” In other words, imagination and reality are closely intertwined, since the imagination can bring the imagined phenomena into reality. Explaining this more, Cutchin stresses that “We must distinguish imaginal from imaginary. Paranormal imagery may be from your head, but the phenomena are not in your head.” (emphasis his)

Moreover, Cutchin develops Knowles’ idea of the paranormal and the Dead further. He proposes an ecology with Spirits and Souls as the flora and fauna populating various habitats. Afterlife and metaphysical researcher, James R. Lewis observed that several occult-metaphysical traditions see the ‘souls’ of everything from “rocks to plants to animals” being involved in re-incarnation. Cutchin adds “Perhaps all souls are laundered through humans, animals, mountains, rivers and trees: an ecology of souls, both human and non-human, underpinning our environment.” (emphasis his) (Note 6)

In addition, Cutchin observes “Yet, deprived of a framework by Materialism, modern Westerners have no idea how to react when the spirits come calling. Terrified we cram them into preexisting cultural boxes: demonic possession, hauntings, faerie contact… alien abductions. What we perceive as trespassing in the ecology of souls may in fact be an invitation. The Otherworld, filled with our dead, seeks communion with us through diplomats straddling realities.” He says that these diplomats are usually shamans. Author Joe Lewels in discussing alien abductions said, “We need shamans, and if society doesn’t provide it, the universe will.” (emphasis his) (Note 7)

Meanwhile, McKenna noted that “ecology” implies the robust variety of entities found in paranormal encounters. To him, ecologies thrived on diversity and the ecology of souls was no different. He believed that the soul was distilled through the living, real and imaginary. For McKenna, altered states of consciousness provided knowledge of the realm of the Dead.

McKenna said in an interview in 1989 (Note 8), “My own private opinion about this is: I think that what psychedelics …carry us into is an ecology of souls. This is what we’re seeing. I mean, if that’s not a shocking enough way of putting it, how about this: what we’re seeing is the dead. Those things in that place are our ancestors….The idea that it’s the dead is a little more hackle-raising, a little more peculiar, a little more heartful, a little more hard to assimilate, and probably closer to the mark. That it is an ecology of souls—that’s where we go.”

There is an ecology and a cycle of energy that reaches beyond visible life. This is an ecology of many dimensions. Life and death transform into a transcendental realm. Once people understand the ecology of souls, they realize that they are not alone. The Ancestors do reach out to the living.

In my instance, my father-in-law came back as a toad. In life, he was called “The Toad,” since he was squat and warty. After his death, a large toad appeared in front of our condo building. This was fall, the time for toads to be preparing for hibernation. However, this huge toad would appear without fail. He would give us his warty stare and hop away. We knew that this Toad was my husband’s father, who was watching over us.

Notes:

Note 1: For Romans, it was February and May. For the Mesopotamians, it was July. Most people are familiar with Celtic Samhain also called Halloween.

Note 2. People with temporal lobe epilepsy have seizures that include auras of deja vu, unusual smells, and odd visions.

Note 3. From YouTube: “Deus Ex McKenna,” Terence McKenna Archive.

Note 4. Interview with Mike Clelland at Whitley Strieber’s UnknownCountry.com.

Note 5. “Co-creation Spirituality” – “the spiritual awareness that people are co-creators with God” – was developed by Philip Hefner for Catholics in 1989. Meanwhile, Nathan Daniel Miller has developed “the Cosmic Synthesis Theory” – “every aspect of existence is interconnected and interdependent” – for non-believers in 2024.

Note 6. Polytheist religions have Gods of the landscape such as rivers and mountains. Perhaps what Cutchin is describing is Polytheism in modern form.

Note 7. As reported in Mike Clelland, “The Messengers: Owls, Synchronicity, and the UFO Abductee.” Richard Dolan Press: NY. 2015.

Note 8. Interview, “A Calendar for the Goddess,” June 1989. Found at the Library of Consciousness. https://www.organism.earth/library/document/calendar-for-the-goddess

Works Used:

Bourke, Daniel, “Apparitions at the Moment of Death.” Destiny Books: Rochester (VT). 2024.

Cutchin, Joshua, “The Ecology of Souls: A New Mythology of Death and the Paranormal.” Horse and Barrel Press: Athens (GA). 2022.

Lecounteux, Claude, “The Pagan Book of the Dead.” (J.E. Graham, trans.) Inner Traditions: Rochester (VT). 2019.

Lewis, John, “Encyclopedia of Afterlife Beliefs and Phenomena.” Gale Research: Detroit (MI). 1994.

In the Roman religion, “di Manes” can be confusing, since They are originally the ordinary dead. Adding to the confusion, the term “Lemures” is often used interchangeably with “di Manes.” Romans have argued among themselves as to the difference between the two if any. (Note 1) Meanwhile, the “Larvae” are the unknown and unrecognizable Dead, who are forgotten. (Note 2) Di Manes are the Family Gods who take a part in the lives of the living.

Romans, in general, did not believe in an afterlife. The idea of the Dead going to Tartarus or the Elysium Fields is a Greek one. The closest to an afterlife is the Dead exiting and entering the Mundus, the underground granary that leads to their underworld home. What Romans believe happened to the Dead is that They became Gods.

The concept of the Dead being Gods who care for the living is a foreign one for modern people. For many, the Christian idea of the afterlife is the one they know – Heaven or Hell. Meanwhile, the undetermined dead went to Purgatory. Therefore, the living helped the Dead go to Heaven through prayers and Masses. In other words, the Dead are dependent upon the living for their well-being.

For Romans, after death, the Dead stayed in the world of the living. Di Manes interacted with people long after their physical body is gone. They provided many things for their families. Di Manes could prolong a person’s life or hasten their death. (An impious person often died early since di Manes would remove their protection.) Di Manes offered counseling to the living. They would come in dreams giving advice on a thorny problem They were also a Guardian of Oaths. People accused of crime would swear by di Manes of the fallen that they were innocent. Moreover, di Manes could disturb the sleep of the living. Since most families wanted harmonious relations with each other, they were careful not to ask for retribution from di Manes.

Roman graves are sacred spaces where the living would make their offerings. Therefore, the Roman funeral included rituals to remove the pollution of death from the attendants. Then earth would be heaped on the grave and sacrifices are made. At this time, the grave transforms into an altar to the new Gods. Then, another offering would be made.

Modern Roman Polytheists, who live far from family graves, have home altars to di Manes. These altars have items of the Dead like photos or favorite things. Daily offerings are made there for di Manes.

Modern people often ask what to do with the Dead who are toxic. If the Dead are Family Gods, then what about the unsavory Dead? A person would ask the “Wise and Well” Ancestors to intervene for them. These Wise and Well Ancestors can guide them as to how to deal with the toxic Dead. In “Bread of the Journey: A Daybook of Wisdom and Faith,” Henri Nouwen, Dutch theologian said “Remembering the dead is choosing their ongoing companionship.” Therefore, a person should seek the blessings of the Wise and Well Dead. The object of asking Them is to end the multigeneration transmittal of toxicity in the Ancestral line. (Note 3).

Notes:

Note 1. Lemures could be the Dead who died tragically, or they could be identified with the Larvae. Roman sources have argued both. For instance, Varro said that the Manes were the friendly Dead, while the Larvae were the restless Dead.

Note 2. The Larvae, as the unknown Dead, could act as the Furies tormenting the living. Therefore, Romans had rituals to ward off the unidentified Dead such as banging pots.

Note 3. Murray Bowen, a psychiatrist, developed the “Bowen Family Systems Theory.” He reasoned that the patterns of relating between family members are transmitted from generation to generations. Once a person knows how toxicity develops in a family, they can repair the family line for future descendants.

Suggested Reading

Charles King, “The Ancient Roman Afterlife.”

Harriet Flower, “The Dancing Lares and the Serpent in the Garden.”

Christine Valters Paintner, “The Love of Thousands.”

Since the Sumerian year starts at the Spring Equinox, the period starting from the Winter Solstice could contain from three to four months. The lunar months of the calendars of the cities have to fit within the solar year of equinoxes. The fourth month (intercalary) was usually inserted by a decree from the King, and was called “Diri(-sekigku).” (This would be the thirteen moon of a year.)

In Sumer, the twelfth month was called “Sekigku,” (The Month of Grain Reaping). This was the time of the barley harvest, which happened everywhere in Mesopotamia. The Festival of Barley Consumption started mid-month and ended at the full moon. The Grain Goddess (Note 1), Ashnan was given offerings (Note 2), and the Beer Goddess, Ninkasi (Note 3) was praised. Modern Sumerian Polytheists will celebrate with bread and beer, giving thanks for both Goddesses.

Source: Mark Cohen, “Festivals and Calendars of the Ancient Near East.”

Notes:

Note 1. A barley stalk is the symbol of the Grain Goddesses.

Note 2. A Hymn to Ashnan

“Ashnan, like a beautiful maiden appears;

She lets the crop for the great festival of Enlil come up heavenward.”

Note 3. Ninkasi means “Mistress of Beer.”

Hymn to Ninkasi

(The translation is by Miguel Civil (Noted language expert))

Note that it tells how to make both barley bread (bappir) and barley beer.

Borne of the flowing water,

Tenderly cared for by the Ninhursag,

Borne of the flowing water,

Tenderly cared for by the Ninhursag,

Having founded your town by the sacred lake,

She finished its great walls for you,

Ninkasi, having founded your town by the sacred lake,

She finished its walls for you,

Your father is Enki, Lord Nidimmud,

Your mother is Ninti, the queen of the sacred lake.

Ninkasi, your father is Enki, Lord Nidimmud,

Your mother is Ninti, the queen of the sacred lake.

You are the one who handles the dough [and] with a big shovel,

Mixing in a pit, the bappir with sweet aromatics,

Ninkasi, you are the one who handles the dough [and] with a big shovel,

Mixing in a pit, the bappir with [date] – honey,

You are the one who bakes the bappir in the big oven,

Puts in order the piles of hulled grains,

Ninkasi, you are the one who bakes the bappir in the big oven,

Puts in order the piles of hulled grains,

You are the one who waters the malt set on the ground,

The noble dogs keep away even the potentates,

Ninkasi, you are the one who waters the malt set on the ground,

The noble dogs keep away even the potentates,

You are the one who soaks the malt in a jar,

The waves rise, the waves fall.

Ninkasi, you are the one who soaks the malt in a jar,

The waves rise, the waves fall.

You are the one who spreads the cooked mash on large reed mats,

Coolness overcomes,

Ninkasi, you are the one who spreads the cooked mash on large reed mats,

Coolness overcomes,

You are the one who holds with both hands the great sweet wort,

Brewing [it] with honey [and] wine

(You the sweet wort to the vessel)

Ninkasi, (…)(You the sweet wort to the vessel)

The filtering vat, which makes a pleasant sound,

You place appropriately on a large collector vat.

Ninkasi, the filtering vat, which makes a pleasant sound,

You place appropriately on a large collector vat.

When you pour out the filtered beer of the collector vat,

It is [like] the onrush of Tigris and Euphrates.

Ninkasi, you are the one who pours out the filtered beer of the collector vat,

It is [like] the onrush of Tigris and Euphrates.

Since the Babylonian year starts at the Spring Equinox, the period starting from the Winter Solstice could contain from three to four months. The lunar months of the Babylonian calendar have to fit within the solar year of equinoxes. The fourth month (intercalary) was usually inserted by a decree from the King.

In the Standard Mesopotamian Calendar (Note 1), the month is called “Addaru.” (Note 2) According to Astrolabe B, in the month of Addaru, “the vast fields of Ningirsu (Lord Flood) the sickle is not left behind.” When the reaping is done, the Barley Consumption Festival starts. People feast, drink beer, visit each other, and play table games.

Meanwhile, preparation for the Festival of Dumuzi (Note 3) is underway, which happens at the end of the month. Offerings of fruit, cheeses, honey, and oil are placed on boats, and sent downstream. The boats fetch Dumuzi, the Shepherd God, (Note 4) from the Netherworld, so that He can prepare for his marriage to Inanna. His Sister, Gestinana goes to take his place in the Netherworld.

The Festival of the Carnelian Bed celebrates the marriage of Ninlil (Lady Wind in the Grain) and Enlil (Lord Wind). Since Addaru is the month of Enlil’s happiness, hymns are sung before the Bed. (Note 5) Then beer, incense, and goat meat are offered for the happiness of these Two Gods, who often interceded in the behalf of humans.

Notes:

Note 1. The Standard Mesopotamian Calendar has a nineteen-year cycle. One month is added in the 17th year before the Autumn Equinox – Ululu 2. In the 19th year, one month is added before the Vernal Equinox, Addaru 2. Each month has 29 or 30 days, which gives a year of 354 days. Therefore, intercalary months are needed to keep the lunar calendar in sync with the solar year. These months usually had the festivals held in either Ululu or Addaru.

Note 2. The name of the month could have come from Ugarit (Canaan) as the “rains of Addaru.”

Note 3. In some parts of Southern Mesopotamia (Umma), the twelfth month was called “Dumuzi,” which ends with the Sacred Marriage of this God. For the Standard Mesopotamian Calendar, “Dumuzi” was the fourth month.

Note 4. Not all Gods were immortal. Dumuzi, considered to be a Dead God, was seized by the gallas and dragged into the Netherworld.

Note 5. The Carnelian Bed, like Boats, has the essence of the Gods.

Source: Mark Cohen, “Festivals and Calendars of the Ancient Near East.”

In February, Romans prepare for the coming of spring by purifying themselves, their homes, and their communities. “February” comes from februum (purgation), and the februa (expiatory rituals). Ceremonies for the Dead abound, since a part of purification is fulfilling the obligations to the Dead. For example, the Lupercalia and Quirinalia have specific purifications rites as a part of their rituals. In addition, the Terminalia and Fornacalia are a part of the worship of the Di Parentes (Parents). Meanwhile, the Feralia focused on all the Dead and the Parentalia on the Lar Familiaris (family spirit).

For Roman Polytheists, the focus on the Dead puts them outside the norm of modern Pagans, who generally follow the Wheel of the Year. For these Pagans, Samhain, held in October, is when the Dead walk the earth. Meanwhile, Imbolc, which is held in February, is the fire festival of Brighid. This time of restrained joy focuses on the returning of new life. In contrast, for Romans, February is the time that the Dead walk freely amongst the living.

February was the only month in the original Roman calendar that had an even number of days. This was to allow the year have an odd number of days for good luck. February was originally the end of the year, with March being the beginning. Many of February’s festivals focus on the transition between the old and new year – making things right with the Dead, purifying, and re-establishing the boundaries.

Fornax and Quirinus

The Fornacalia is held between February 5 and 17. At this time, in ancient Rome, people brought grain to the communal ovens to be parched in the ancient manner of their fathers. Fornax, the Goddess of Bakers and Ovens, was invoked to keep the wheat from burning. The last day of the Fornacalia is the Quirinalia, also known as “The Feast of Fools.” This is the time that people who delayed bringing their grain came to fulfill their civic duty. Modern observances involved making bread from scratch, and making offerings to Juno Curitis (Juno of the Curia (Wards)).

Quirinus is thought to be the deified Romulus and represents the Romans in their civic sense. “Quirites” is what officials addressed Roman citizens as. In their military capacity, Romans were called “Romani.” Quirinus with Mars and Jupiter were the original trio of Gods governing Rome before the Republic. (Quirinus was also an ancient Sabine God of War.)

Di Parentes and Di Manes (The Dead)

The Parentalia starts February 13 and runs through February 21. The Caristia on February 22 officially ends this period of venerating the Dead. During this time, the Lupercalia and Feralia are held. Each ritual focuses on a different aspect of purification, families, and the Dead. The Parentalia is a private ceremony that the family does to honor their dead. Greeting the Dead, “Salve, sancta parens.” (Hail, Venerable Parent), the living would then dine with them. The Feralia entails visiting the graves and making offerings. The Caristia is a family feast, where all quarrels between family members are settled. Family unity is then cemented with the household Lars.

Faunus and Inuus

On February 15, the Lupercalia is held. Traditionally, sacrifices were made at the Lupercal Cave in Rome, where the Lupa, She-Wolf nursed Romulus and Remus. This was followed by the Lupercii (young men) running through the streets striking women with the februa (goatskin whips). This was to insure fertility in the women. Traditional Gods of Fertility, Faunus and Inuus preside over the Lupercalia. Modern observances entail prayers for purification and fertility, the cleaning of the house and self, and offerings left in secluded areas.

Terminus

The Terminalia, held on February 23, honors the God of Boundaries. It is a time of purifying the land and redefining the boundaries between homes. The “beating of the bounds” which entails walking around the perimeter reestablishes the boundaries for another year. Cakes and wine are offered to Terminus during this activity. (This festival also marks the end of the traditional Roman year.)

Inca philosophy is represented by the Chakana, the Stepped Cross. Each of the Quarters of the Chakana depicts a part of their world view. In the First Quarter are the Three Worlds – the Lower (Uqhu Pacha), Middle (Kay Pacha) and Upper (Hanan Pacha). The Second Quarter represents the Sacred Trilogy – the Snake of the Lower World, the Puma of the Middle World, and the Condor of the Upper World. The two remaining Quarters focus the Inca laws and virtues. (Note 1)

The Chakana acts as a bridge between the Worlds, by using harmony and balance as the keys to the keeping of the Cosmos. For the Inca, the Cosmos is a living entity of energy and force, a tapestry of interconnectedness and harmony. Therefore, the balance between the Worlds requires the reciprocity of each with the others. To help maintain this delicate balance, the Sacred Trilogy works to sustain harmonious relations. Since everything depends on each other, humans, nature, and the Gods bond as one.

The Upper World (Hanan Pacha)

The Upper World is associated with light and the masculine principle. (The Lower World – darkness and the feminine principle) From this World, the Gods govern the universe. To bring messages to the humans of the Middle World, They would send the Andean Condor. For humans, the Condor would also communicate with the Gods for them. (The Andean Condor is thought to be the only animal who can ascend the heavens and return to the earth.)

The Temple of the Condor at Machu Picchu depicts a condor in full landing. A symbol of power and fertility, the Condor gathers the clouds for rain upon the earth. As the special Emissary of Inti, the God of the Sun, the Condor brings divine guidance and transcendence. The Condor also carries souls into the afterlife.

The Middle World (Kay Pacha)

The Earthly Realm (the Middle World) is the one of humans, animals, plants, caves, springs, and mountains. In this realm of tangible experiences, everyone lives in balance with the others. Humans interact with the natural and divine worlds. The Gods of the Realm, Pachamana (Goddess of the Earth), Saramama (Goddess of Grains), and Paryaqaqa (God of the Waters) show humans how to live in harmony with the rest.

The apex predator of the Andes, the Puma teaches the Inca to live in harmonious grace with nature. As a leader of the Earthly Realm, the Puma challenges the Inca to face their inner fears to find clarity and resilience. The symbol of wisdom and strength, the Puma guides the Inca on their spiritual journeys to the other Worlds.

Cusco, the capital of the Inca Empire is designed to resemble the Puma. At Q’enqa (Cusco Temple), stones were carved to form the shadow of the Puma. During the winter solstice in June, at sunrise, light would pass through the stone fissures to form the shape of the Puma. This ritual, known as the “awakening of the Puma,” was a part of the Inti Raymi, the Grand Festival of the Sun.

The Lower World (Uqha Pacha)

The Realm of Death and the Ancestors is the Lower World. Shrouded in darkness and mystery, this world holds the feminine principle which is the source of fertility. Meanwhile, the Ancestors offer guidance and protection to their descendants.

As the Guardian of Mysteries, the Snake would appear in dreams. Traveling between the Lower and Middle Worlds, the Snake offers wisdom and knowledge to humans. Shedding its skin, the Snake demonstrates transformation and rebirth for the Inca. As a part of the fertility of the earth, the Snake teaches the Inca how to embrace change and live in the cycles of life.

Like the Puma and Condor, the Snake had a city designed in its honor, which has yet to be found. However, the Snake can be seen in the terraces descending the mountains. When the sunlight shines, an undulating snake-like figure appears.

Notes:

Note 1. The Laws are “Do not steal,” “Do not lie,” and “Do not be lazy.” The Incan Philosophy is “Love,” “Knowledge,” and “Work.”

In the Northwoods and the Great Lakes Regions, the Anishinaabe people (Note 1) tell of Mishipeshu, the eternal foe of the Thunderbird. The Master of the Powers of Water, Mishipeshu lives in the deepest part of Lake Superior. Meanwhile, Her Children inhabit the lakes and rivers of the surrounding lands.

Mishipeshu, Herself, resembles a puma (panther) (Note 2) with copper horns and scales. Her home lies between Michipicoten (Lake Superior, Ontario) and Manitoulin Islands (Lake Huron, Ontario). She guards the copper of the region, with the Michipicoten Island being off limits for everyone, The copper are playthings for Her Children. Anyone taking copper is chased and drowned by Mishipeshu. She is the reason that many copper ships in Lake Superior are often lost during the raging tempests.

Possessing an ill temper, Mishipeshu will cause violent waters and storms to occur, often drowning people. Before making Herself known, She will speak in a roaring hiss sounding similar to rushing waters. When hearing her hissing, a traveler on the water will offer Mishipeshu tobacco to appease Her.

The Anishinaabe regard Mishipeshu necessary for keeping the balance of life. She protects lakes and rivers allowing the fish and wildlife to flourish. Since Mishipeshu can control the weather, She brings storms to clean the waters and rearrange the lands surrounding them. People will call on Her for protection since She ensures the purity of the ponds and streams.

The Prairie Band of the Potawatomi holds the Bundle Ceremony to honor Mishipeshu. (The ceremony involves opening a sacred bundle.) To ensure the well-being of the People, the Bundle Ceremony keeps the balance between the Thunderbird and Mishipeshu. As Master of Air, Thunderbird inhabits the skies, while Mishipeshu lives in the Underworld. (Traditional Ashinaabe quill work features both of these Gods.)

Notes:

Note 1: The Anishinaabe People are the Ojibwe, Odawa (Ottawa), Potawatomi, Mississaugas, Nipissing, and Algonquin.

Note 2: “Panther” is a commonly used word for several cats. The puma (cougar), a member of the Small Cat Sub-family, is called “panther.” The leopard and jaguar are also called “panther.”

Ahighly adaptable cat, the puma lives in habitats ranging from snow-covered mountains to tropical rainforests of the Western Hemisphere. Because of her wide range, she has been called many names by many peoples. “Cougar” is derived from a Tupi word, which means “false deer,” because of her brown coat and large size. “Puma,” from the Quechua language of the Incas, means “power.” “Mountain Lion” was a joke that Native Americans played on the Dutch in New York. They told the Dutch that the puma was a female lion that lived in the mountains. (Note 1)

Known by many names, the puma is a member of the Small Cats (Felinae Sub-Family) (Note 2) rather than the Big Cats (Pantherinae Sub-Family). Often called “panther” (Note 3), this is a misnomer since the puma does not belong in the Big Cat Family. (“Black Panther” is either a black jaguar or leopard.) Like all Felinae, the puma cannot roar. However, she screams like a woman, which frightens people and other animals.

Because she is an exceptionally successful generalist, the puma survived the late Pleistocene extinctions of other large North American felids. Wherever she lives, the puma migrates to follow deer and other prey. She prefers living in caves or among rocky outcrops.

Among Native Americans, the puma has a mixed reputation. The Anishinaabe (Note 4) believe She is a being of chaos. (Note 5) The Shawnee see Her more positively, since they think She possesses the gift of prophecy. More familiar with the puma, the Apache People consider Her to be a good mother. The Seminole respect the Florida panther (a subspecies of pumas), who is associated with the winds. (Usually, the members of their Panther Clan are also their leaders.) At the ruins of the Pecos Pueblo is a burial mound honoring Puma as one of the “Beast Gods.”

The Huron-Wyandot and the Seneca connect the puma to comets. As the “Death Panther,” He warns the people of imminent disaster. With tobacco offerings, they ask “Death Panther” to “turn aside impending evil.”

In Mayan and Aztec cosmology, the puma represents the sun and the Upperworld. (The jaguar is the moon and the Underworld.) The Solar Puma is shown with a crown of rays at Teotihuacan. During the eclipses, the Solar Puma and the Lunar Jaguar form a sexual union or fight each other.

For the Incas, the Puma, with the Condor and Serpent, make up the Sacred Trilogy. (Note 6) The Puma represents the wisdom and strength of the earth. This Small Cat is associated with the Land of the Living (Kay Pacha). In fact, Cusco, the capital of the Inca Empire, is laid out depicting the Puma.

The puma has long been a part of North American folklore. Among the woodsmen, the ball-tailed cat is more feared than the puma. This cat is a puma with a giant bone ball at the end of his tail. It uses the ball to drum to attract females. The other use is to drop down on an unsuspecting lumberjack and beat them to death.

Another puma-like cat is the Wampus cat, a jet-black panther with glowing eyes. The Wampus cat, with her six legs, is a part of the folklore of the Appalachians. This cat has exceptional speed and agility. This makes it hard to protect livestock from the Wampus cat.

Long and lean, the puma is immensely powerful and capable of killing a black bear in a single bite. Stalking him, the puma makes a powerful leap on his back and knocks him to the ground. In forests, she races through the trees with great agility and speed. Concealing herself, the puma follows people closely without them sensing it. In fact, she is an “UFO,” often talked about but little seen.

By whatever name the puma is called, she is the epitome of personal power. Elusive and agile, the puma either strikes or watches as she chooses to do. As the graceful ruler of the mountains, she deals out life and death on her timetable. Just remember not to be so elusive and agile that no one can find you. Gary Urbak, a naturalist, noted “It’s sufficient just to know that sometimes in the shadows of dusk, felines on huge paws still creep across the land.”

Notes:

Note 1: Names for the puma: cougar, mountain lion, panther, catamount, leopardo.

Note 2: Scientists have traditionally split the Cat Family into two groups – the Big Cats (Pantherinae) and Small Cats (Felinae). Although many Felinae are small, the puma (cougar) and ocelot are not. However, they are smaller than Big Cats. Felines differ from Big Cats in other significant ways. Felines hunt by biting the back of their prey’s neck with their needle-sharp teeth. They sever the neck vertebrae of their prey. When felines eat, they crouch. Meticulous, they strive to keep themselves clean, and spend many hours grooming themselves.

Note 3: “Panther” is a commonly used word for several cats. The puma (cougar), a member of the Small Cat Sub-family, is called “panther.” The leopard and jaguar are also called “panther.”

Note 4: The Anishinaabe People are the Ojibwe, Odawa (Ottawa), Potawatomi, Mississaugas, Nipissing, and Algonquin.

Note 5: The Mishipeshu (Underwater Panther) is a Master of the Water and a foe of the Thunderbird, who is a Master of the Air. (Post on this Water God is forthcoming.)

Note 6: The Sacred Trilogy represents the Three Worlds of the Inca religion. The Condor, Emissary to the Gods, is associated with the Upper World (Hanan Pacha), The Serpent (Anaconda) with the Lower World (Ukhu Pacha). (A Post on the Trilogy is forthcoming.)

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LION: Group Dynamics

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